Who Were the Sumerians?
- Davit Grigoryan
- Jun 15, 2024
- 10 min read
Updated: Feb 13
We call them the first civilization in history, they invented writing, wheels, and glass, dividing the hour into minutes and seconds, and the first brewing technique. It is difficult to assess the Sumerians' contribution to world cultural development. In this article, we will learn about the first kings of Sumer, how Sumerians lived, and the name of the first female poet in history.
In 1922, archaeologists were excavating the ancient capital of Babylon, Kish. Members of the expedition suddenly find a cuneiform prism(Weld-Blundell prism). Later it turns out that the names of the Sumerian kings are written in it. Such lists are still found in Iraq. These lists are used to restore the history of the dynasty who lived there.
Where did the Sumerians come from?
Sumer is a historical region in southern Mesopotamia. Nowadays it is the territory of Iraq. Mesopotamia is a Greek word that means the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In 1869, Julius Oppert proposed calling the ancient population of Mesopotamia “Sumerians” and their language “Sumerian”. But the Sumerians called themselves black-headed or sag-geek, which means just people.
The first inhabitants of Sumer appeared approximately 7,000 years ago. Linguistic analysis says that its indigenous inhabitants were most likely not the Sumerians, but the Ubi tribes. The names of significant Sumerian cities such as Ur, Nippur, and Lagash are borrowed words. The German scientist Benno Landsberger confirmed the assumption that most Sumerian words are not of Sumerian origin. The big part of the original Sumerian words consisted of one syllable: “lu” -man, “gal” -big, “ama”-mother, and “gi”-return. A new meaning was formed with these roots: “lugal” -military leader, and “ama-gi” -freedom. Words denoting occupations consisted of several syllables: “udul” -shepherd, “shuhudak” -fisherman, “addub” -mason. The formation of these words is similar to the names of rivers and cities. This means that the main agricultural crafts were brought into Sumer not by the Sumerians, but by their predecessors, presumably the Ubei culture.
There is a lot of controversy about the origin of the Sumerians. Perhaps Sumerians came from the mountains of the Iranian plateau, it is also possible that they came from Hindustan. Sumerian literature mentioned the island of Dilmun, where, according to legend, all humanity originated. Researchers don’t have a clear opinion about the origin of the Sumerians; there are only many theories.
Who were the Sumerians' first kings?
The Weld-Blundell prism lists the names of Mesopotamian rulers from the earliest dynasties. Sumerian kings are conventionally divided into before and after the flood. Pre-flood rulers were credited with divine powers and unusually long reigns. For example, the first king of Alulim led the Sumerians for 28 thousand years.
King Etana is the first ruler about whom reliable information has been preserved, but he is also half mythical. According to legend, he ascended to heaven and reigned for 1500 years. Etana originated from the first dynasty of Kish. He was a military leader. Sumerologist Kramer suggests that he extended his power beyond Sumer and wanted world domination.
According to legend, Etana was cursed with childlessness. He sought to obtain the Plant of Birth, but the plant grew in heaven. Etana was saved from a snake by the legendary eagle, who helped him ascend to heaven. He plucked the treasured stem and had an heir, a son Balih. The myth of Etana was reflected in the Sumerian culture of that time. Seal carvers often depicted a mortal rising to heaven on the wings of an eagle.
How did Sumerians live?
In Sumer, the first city-states appeared: Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, and others. Each city was ruled by a separate dynasty, which led to constant military clashes between them. In the center of every city, there was a temple. The temple was run by priests and acolytes who wielded political power. They collected taxes, set prices in the city, distributed income, and ransomed prisoners. Temples could resolve legal disputes, conduct marriages, and even produce textiles. The temple was the main place of public life. The temples in each city were dedicated to a separate deity. People found the meaning of life in serving the gods, and war between cities was perceived as a struggle between the gods. Religion influenced the whole society. The power of the cities was divided between the high priest with the title of Ensi and the military leader with the title of Lugal. Ensi's power generally did not extend beyond the temple domains. The Lugals sought military superiority over other cities and all of Sumer.
The land of Sumer is a plain in the middle of desert and swamp. There are very few mineral resources on it. There you can find date palms and shrubs. The climate in this area is extremely hot and the weather is unstable. If it starts to rain, it turns into a downpour. Why did the first civilization in history arise here?
The Sumerians created the world's first irrigation system. The fertile soil, which previously lacked moisture, was fed by the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates through a network of canals.
The harvest became richer, and farmers had more time to engage in crafts. The Sumerians learned to use one of the main resources of their lands - clay. They made sickles, pots, plates, and jugs from clay. It is believed that the Sumerians were the first to invent the potter's wheel. The Sumerians produced ceramics while neighboring peoples' hand-molded clay pottery. There were few minerals in Sumer, so many resources were brought from abroad.
The Sumerian artisans were also valued. Neighboring civilizations purchased their products. There was a great demand for textile production. Thousands of tons of wool were exported from Ur every year. The ivory and wood carvers were famous. Jewelers worked not only with gold and silver but also with gems. The Sumerians made the most of the few resources they had, and they also knew how to negotiate with neighboring civilizations.
Who was Gilgamesh?
Gilgamesh is the next in the Royal List whose name is glorified throughout the ages. He came from the first dynasty of Uruk and his image in history is also partly historical, partly mythical, partly cultic. At the beginning of his reign, Gilgamesh was subordinate to the king of Kish, Aga. One day, Aga demanded that Gilgamesh's fellow countrymen, the inhabitants of Uruk, take part in the expressive works of Kish, but Gilgamesh refused to submit to him. Then the inhabitants of Uruk supported Gilgamesh and proclaimed him a military leader. Aga came with an army on boats, but Gilgamesh achieved the independence of the city of Uruk, and power over lower Mesopotamia passed to him.
There are many myths about Gilgamesh, but we will tell you the one, in which he gains and loses the flower of immortality.
After the death of his friend Enkidu, Gilgamesh fled the city to find the source of eternal life. Gilgamesh arrived on the Island of the Blessed, where he met Utnapishtim, the only person who survived the Great Flood. Utnapishtim told Gilgamesh about the Ocean of Death, at the bottom of which grows a flower of eternal youth. Gilgamesh dived into the Ocean of Death and obtained the treasured plant. Upon returning home, Gilgamesh decided to take a bath. While he was in the water, the snake reached the flower and ate its petals. Gilgamesh saw how the snake shed its skin and, becoming young again, crawled away.
The first reformer and woman king
Urukagina was the first social reformer. He came from the first dynasty of Lagash, but he did not inherit power but received it from a national assembly. The election of Urukagina was probably preceded by a popular revolt. The previous ruler, Lugalanda, and officials close to him were bribe-takers.
The first written mention of the concept of freedom or "ama-gi" refers to the reforms of Urukagina. "ama-gi" means the liberation of slaves and is translated as returning to the mother. Former slaves could return and help their parents. Under Urukagina, commoners were no longer forced to work on irrigation projects. The king encouraged hard-working artisans with additional payments and protected free citizens from the tyranny of the nobility. Urukagina forbade encroachment on the belongings of ordinary soldiers and strengthened the rights of widows and orphans. Yet the reign of Urukagina was controversial. The king suppressed matriarchy and polyandry. Before the reforms, women in Lagash had the right to divorce themselves and even live with two husbands at once. The laws of Urukagina unfortunately also became the first written evidence of the demotion of women.
But in the King's list, you can find a female name. We know about the queen of the city of Kish, who was called Kubaba. Kubaba ran a tavern and was not of noble origin. She was able to come to power when the second dynasty of Kish fell to the army of Uruk. It is not known exactly how, but it was during this crisis that Kubaba became the founder of the third dynasty of Kish.
Little information remains about the reign of Kubab, but we know for sure that she strengthened the foundations of Kish. This is stated in the entry from the King's list. It is also possible that her image became the basis for the legends about the Babylonian queen Semiramis.
The Legacy of the Sumerians
The Sumerians invented cuneiform, the first writing in history, at least for this reason they can be called a Great Civilization. The most ancient Sumerian texts appeared 5000 years ago. Initially, cuneiform words were signs-pictures, that is, pictograms. For example, the image of a star corresponded to the word "an" - sky. The same sign was used to denote the word "dingir" - God.
The Sumerians were the first to invent the wheel, the cart, and the chariot. The most ancient carts were used for ritual ceremonies. With their help, the Sumerians transported rulers-priests and images of gods. Later they began to use carts for agriculture and war chariots for military campaigns.
The Sumerians invented the first brewing technique. They even had a patron deity of beer, the celestial goddess Ninkasi. She was born in sparkling clear water. Her name was translated as the lady who fills the mouth. Beer was the main alcoholic drink in Mesopotamia.
The Sumerians were excellent at mathematics. They invented the sexagesimal system of numeration and were the first to divide the year into 360 days and 12 months. Each month they had lasted 29-30 days, in which there were seven-day weeks. The Sumerians divided the circle into 360 degrees, an hour into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. Their day consisted of two parts, 12 hours each, so the calendar and the 24-hour day were also a Sumerian invention.
Sumerian priests observed the sun, the moon, and the starry sky. By observing the movement of celestial bodies, they learned to predict solar and lunar eclipses.
Sargon the Great and the Decline of Sumer
Summer consisted of many cities that were constantly at odds, not only with each other but also with the Akkadian cities. The first person who united the Sumerian and Akkadian lands was Sargon the Great. Who is he?
According to legend, Sargon's mother was the High Priestess, but she could not keep the child, so she secretly put him in a basket and sent him down the Euphrates River. The baby ended up on the shore of the city of Kish, where he was found by a passing court water carrier. He raised the boy and taught him gardening. A year later, the goddess Ishtar appeared to young Sargon in a dream, surrounded by a cloud of doves. She saw in him a Great Ruler and blessed him to be a king.
We don't know how Sargon came to power. A poorly preserved clay tablet describes how he served as a cupbearer at court. Then young Sargon shared Ishter's prophecy with the king.
The king became frightened and sent Sargon on a hopeless military campaign. But Sargon survived. Then the narrative breaks off, and in the next passage, Sorgon is presented as a ruler of Kish.
Having come to power, Sorgon carried out military reform. Before him, the army consisted of heavy infantry and war wagons. Sorgon countered the infantry phalanx with numerous archers and warriors with axes. The renewed army helped him quickly conquer the northern cities of Mesopotamia. After the victorious campaign, Sorgon began to look for a new capital, but instead of moving it to one of the conquered cities, he chose the inconspicuous city of Akkad. The lands in the middle of the Euphrates River became known as Akkad, and their inhabitants as Akkadians.
Sargon went to the south of Mesopotamia, declared war on Lugal-zage-si, and tried to unite the Sumerians under his rule. Having defeated the army of Lugal-zage-si, Sargon took him prisoner, chained him, and put him outside the temple gate. Sargon decided to show, that Sumer was under his power. He made a symbolic gesture by washing his sword in the waters of the Persian Gulf. Thus Sargon united all the cities of Mesopotamia into one state, the Akkadian Kingdom. It is called the first empire in history.
Sargon ruled for 55 years, and at the end of his reign, famine broke out in southern Mesopotamia. This led to rebellions in the Empire. According to legend, the famine was brought on by the god Marduk because Sargon destroyed Babylon. During one of the military campaigns, Sargon died without having suppressed the rebellion.
Enheduanna - the first poetess
Sorgon had a daughter named Enheduanna. He appointed her High Priestess at the main temple of Ur. She wrote hymns and epics in two languages at once: Sumerian and Akkadian.
Thus, Enheduanna created a new mythology that brought together the cultures of the Sumerians and Akkadians. She is the first poetess in history whom we know. She was the first to start writing about herself and her feelings. Followers believed in her power and that she could cross the boundaries of two genders.
After Sargon's death, a military rebellion arose in the kingdom; one of the slanderers excommunicated Enheduanna from the temple and forced her to leave the city. Naram-Sin, Enheduanna's brother, suppressed the rebellion, returned his sister to the palace, and restored her status as a priestess. But it was too late to stop the collapse of the Sorgon empire. After the death of Naram-Sin, his father's kingdom plunged into chaos. A drought came, barbarian tribes invaded, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers changed their courses.
About 400 years later, the last independent Sumerian kingdom fell. It was captured by Hammurabi, the ruler of Babylon. He united northern and southern Mesopotamia, led one of the oldest legal codes, and made the Babylonian kingdom one of the most powerful in history.
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