Who Were the Mamluks?
- Davit Grigoryan
- Feb 16
- 8 min read
The Mamluks established one of the most powerful Islamic states of the Middle Ages. This unique military class, distinguished by its organization, succeeded in controlling a vast territory stretching from North Africa to Syria. During their reign, they halted the Mongol invasion of the Holy Land, destroyed the last Crusader stronghold in the Middle East, and oversaw a new flourishing of art and culture in Egypt. So, who were the Mamluks? Where did they come from, and where did they disappear?
How did the Mamluks rise to power?
The Arabic word "Mamluk" literally translates to "owned", "in possession", or "slave", referring to someone who was purchased or taken as part of a tax or tribute but was not born into slavery. Mamluks were recruited from a young age, often sourced from slave markets that traded in captured Turks, people from the southern Russian steppes, and natives of the Caucasus region. These groups became the founders of two Mamluk dynasties: the Bahri and the Burji. Boys who were brought to Egypt in this way were converted to Islam, taught Arabic, and trained in isolated camps to prepare them for future military service. After undergoing rigorous training, these former slaves became true professionals.
The rise of the Mamluks began as early as the 10th to 12th centuries. As outsiders in Egyptian lands, the ruling Fatimids and Ayyubids relied on a personal guard composed of loyal slaves from various nationalities. For their exceptional service, these slaves were granted land, gradually transforming them into major feudal lords. The leaders of this guard, the emirs, gained significant political influence. By the time of the last Ayyubid rulers, the Mamluks already made up most of the Egyptian army.
In 1249, Sultan as-Salih Ayyub died. However, his only son, Turan Shah, who succeeded him on the throne, had a tempestuous temperament and frequently humiliated and insulted his subjects, which incited the hatred of the Mamluk guard. The Mamluks were unwilling to endure the young ruler's behavior, and just a few months after his accession, he was assassinated. The conspiracy against the sultan was led by the highest ranks of the Mamluks. An opportunity to execute their plan arose on May 2, 1250, when, during another drunken revelry, Turan Shah cut himself with a saber and, in a fit of rage, began threatening to punish the Mamluks whom he blamed for the incident. At that moment, the guards burst into the sultan's tent with drawn blades. However, the sultan managed to escape and took refuge in a wooden tower, which was soon set on fire. Miraculously escaping from there as well, he fled to the river, where he waded into shallow water and began pleading for mercy. Despite his pleas, the conspirators were resolute. Turan Shah was executed in front of the entire army, and his body was left lying by the banks of the Nile for three days.
After this, the reins of power were taken by the widow of as-Salih Ayyub, Shajar al-Durr, who ruled for only 80 days. The Mamluks were unwilling to be governed by a woman, so they forced the sultana to marry Aybek, one of their military commanders. This marriage effectively transferred official power to the warrior-slaves and marked the beginning of the Mamluk Sultanate's history.
The History of the Mamluk Sultanate
The early years of the newly formed Sultanate were marked by internal conflicts. The rulers among the Mamluk emirs constantly competed with one another. However, in the face of a common threat, they had to set aside their rivalries and unite against the enemy. In the second half of the 1250s, the Mongols began their Middle Eastern campaign. Large forces commanded by Genghis Khan's grandson, Hulagu, captured Baghdad, Aleppo, and Damascus, and advanced toward the borders of Egypt. The Mamluks under Sultan Qutuz moved out to meet them, and in September 1260, the Battle of Ain Jalut occurred in Palestine, where the Mongols were defeated. In the same year, Qutuz was killed. He was succeeded by the prominent Mamluk commander Baybars as the ruler of the Sultanate.
Baybars managed to significantly reduce the Crusader holdings in the Middle East. Under the pressure of the Mamluks, key Christian strongholds such as Caesarea, Jaffa, Antioch, and the impregnable Krak des Chevaliers fell. Egypt and Syria were united, the remaining Assassins' hideouts were destroyed, the Ilkhanate of Hulagu was struck, Cilician Armenia was ravaged, and Nubia was brought under control. Under Baybars' directives, fortifications were rebuilt, supplies were stocked with ammunition and weapons, the postal service was established to operate regularly, the navy was significantly expanded, and most importantly, an effective and strict system of government was created. Additionally, by proclaiming al-Mustansir as caliph in Cairo, the Mamluks were legitimized in the Muslim world. The Islamic holy sites of Arabia—Mecca and Medina—came under their control.
In 1302, the Mamluks captured the island of Ruad, thus depriving the Crusaders of their last stronghold on the Eastern Mediterranean coast. By the end of the 14th century, the ruling Bahri Turkic dynasty was replaced by the Caucasian Burji dynasty, and a hundred years later, the gradual decline of the Mamluk Sultanate's illustrious history began. The sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope was discovered. Portuguese merchants, bypassing Cairo, began bringing goods to Europe at low prices that had previously been transported through Egypt. This triggered a severe economic crisis in the Mamluk Sultanate. Trade declined significantly. The Egyptians attempted to address the situation and even defeated the Portuguese in a naval battle at the Bay of Chaula in 1508. However, just the following year, the Mamluk fleet was defeated in the Battle of Diu. Efforts to restore influence in the region failed.
In 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in Syria, Qansuh al-Ghawri, the last truly significant Egyptian sultan, was killed. The 60,000-strong Ottoman army achieved a brilliant victory over the 80,000-strong Mamluk forces. The slave cavalry could not counter the magnificent Ottoman artillery. This defeat became one of the central events in the history of the Mamluk Sultanate. In 1517, Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Selim entered Cairo and had the Mamluk ruler Tuman Bey hanged at the city gates, marking the end of the rule of the military slave class.
Subsequently, the Mamluks made futile attempts to rise, but they were unable to escape Ottoman control. In 1798, they even assisted their conquerors in fighting Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids. On March 1, 1811, the "Massacre of the Citadel" occurred. The Turkish rulers were fed up with the Mamluks' disobedience. The Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali invited about 600 of their leaders to a celebration, where a trap was set. The Mamluks were surrounded in the narrow space between the walls of the Cairo Citadel and slaughtered. A wave of killings of slave soldiers and their relatives swept across the country. Some managed to flee to Sudan, but they were pursued and caught there as well. In 1820, a punitive expedition sent by Muhammad Ali eliminated the last of the rebellious Mamluks.
Military of the Mamluk Sultanate: Weaponry, Armor, and Tactics
The most important factor in the Mamluks' dominance in the medieval Middle East was their military training and traditions. As established earlier, a Mamluk’s career began when a boy-slave, converted to Islam, was placed in a special camp. There, the young man underwent comprehensive training. A key element was learning archery. However, in addition to this, the young Mamluk also studied other disciplines, including the use of the crossbow both on foot and on horseback, wrestling, fencing with various weapons, and spear exercises.
After completing the intensive training course, the candidate underwent final examinations. Those who passed could either join the sultan’s guard or serve under his emirs, i.e., officers. Naturally, the first option was much more prestigious; it selected the best of the best. The sultan’s guard was a true breeding ground for talent, where prominent Mamluk commanders made their names.
From this point on, the life of the newly minted warrior underwent significant changes. He became a free Muslim, could marry and start a family, and, with diligent service, could be granted a landholding. However, the children of the Mamluks were not considered Mamluks themselves and were placed lower in the hierarchy. Over time, a warrior could buy slaves and train them in his likeness, thus forming entire Mamluk households, or "beys". In these households, the family-less young slaves became incredibly close-knit, with their comrades-in-arms being their closest companions. Meanwhile, the constant influx of new slaves ensured high competition within these groups, and the lack of hereditary power transfer helped the most talented rise to prominence.
The Mamluk army had its structure and was divided into units of 10,000, 1,000, 100, and 10 soldiers. In addition to the sultan’s and emir’s guards, there were units of mercenaries, often composed of the sons of sultans and emirs who chose a military career. By the 14th century, the significance of the units declined, and anyone willing to pay the entrance fee could join.
The backbone of the victorious Mamluk army was its cavalry, although cavalrymen could easily dismount to continue fighting on foot or to begin constructing field fortifications. Their army was typically divided into central and flanking sections, and efforts were made to position it in such a way as to ensure rear security with the help of a natural feature, such as a hill. Meanwhile, the Mamluks avoided close engagement with the enemy unless necessary, bombarding them with a hail of arrows. In addition to bows, the soldiers could be armed with crossbows, sabers, maces, and spears. Warriors wore cloaks, baggy trousers, and turbans wrapped in many layers around their heads. However, Mamluks with greater resources equipped themselves with plate armor and metal helmets.
Government Structure of the Mamluk Sultanate
An equally significant aspect of the success of the Mamluk Sultanate was its specific and well-organized state apparatus. Egypt under the warrior-slaves was a unified entity. Typically, the son of the sultan would only temporarily assume power until the emirs elected a new leader. This system allowed for a transfer of power without large-scale internal conflicts. All key leadership positions in the country were occupied by military personnel, naturally from among the Mamluks. The 16th-century Arab geographer and traveler Leo Africanus reveals in his "Mamluk Hierarchy" the hierarchical arrangement and responsibilities of the ten principal figures of the state.
The ruler of all was, of course, the sultan. Next was the Ad-Dawadar—a high official responsible for overseeing top bureaucratic matters, including appointing and dismissing officials. His powers were scarcely different from those of the sultan, and the wealth associated with his office was nearly comparable.
In the third position was the Amir-Kabir—the great emir. As the state's chief military commander, he organized the armies, led them into battle, appointed fortress governors and provincial administrators, and had the authority to allocate treasury funds as he saw fit.
Fourth after the Egyptian ruler was the governor of Syria—"Naib ash-Sham". He could be considered a vice-sultan in his region and held full authority. The only limitations to his powers were the fortress and citadel governors appointed from above, as well as the obligation to pay the sultan several thousand sarafs annually.
In the fifth position was the "Ustad ad-Dar"—the palace steward. He was responsible for providing the ruler and his family with food, precious ornaments, and various necessary items.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, Egypt became the center of Arab-Muslim culture. The Mamluks fostered the development of philosophy, art, and the humanities and natural sciences. During this time, the sultanate saw the emergence of many prominent Muslim scholars, artisans, and teachers, and the creative work of poets and writers flourished.
Thus, it can be said that the Mamluk Sultanate, in all respects, was one of the leading forces in the medieval Middle East. Therefore, it is not surprising that it was destined to halt the invasion of the formidable Mongols and put an end to the active presence of the Crusaders in the Holy Land.
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