The Great French Revolution
- Davit Grigoryan
- Apr 11
- 11 min read
In a world where lawlessness and injustice guarded order, where the aristocracy basked in luxury while the common people drowned in poverty, a spark was born—one capable of changing everything. Imagine yourself standing on the brink of a monumental social uprising, right in the heart of the Great French Revolution. This was when the world was turned upside down, when the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity were no longer just words but a force reshaping society. Today, we step into an era where the voices of the oppressed grew louder, the people defied the old order, and history itself was rewritten.
The Great French Revolution, which took place in the late 18th century, was one of the most significant and influential events in world history. It overturned the feudal order that had existed for centuries and laid the foundations of modern France and shaped the development of many other nations.
Causes of The Great French Revolution
In 1787, France entered an economic downturn that gradually turned into a crisis. Production declined, and the French market was overwhelmed with cheaper English goods. Poor harvests and natural disasters, which destroyed crops and vineyards, added to this. Furthermore, France spent enormous sums on unsuccessful wars and supporting the American Revolution. Revenues were insufficient, with expenditures exceeding income by 20%, and the treasury had to take out loans, the interest on which became unbearable.
The royal court and nobility continued to live in luxury while the ordinary people lost their jobs and starved, and the bourgeois (entrepreneurs) paid ruinous trade tariffs. French society was divided into three estates: the first—clergy, the second—nobility, and the third—commoners: peasants, workers, bourgeois, and the poor. The first and second estates made up only 6% of the population and did not pay taxes. The only way to increase revenue for the treasury was to strip the first and second estates of their tax privileges.
Against the backdrop of this injustice, the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers such as Charles Louis de Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Voltaire became increasingly popular. They argued that people from different estates were no different from one another and, therefore, should have equal rights and freedoms. The authorities fought against these ideas, only adding to their notoriety.
Moreover, many French people were inspired by the example of the United States, which declared independence from England based on Enlightenment ideas about the people's right to resist tyranny. King Louis XV was not distinguished by the determination and strength required of a ruler in such a difficult period. But even he understood that everyone should pay taxes to save the economy.
On February 22, Finance Minister Calonne persuaded the king to convene a meeting of the higher clergy and nobility and propose the introduction of a universal land tax. Upon learning about the state of the treasury, the elites were horrified, accused Calonne of embezzlement, and demanded his resignation. They had no such authority, but the king yielded. And since the elites refused to pay taxes, on January 24, 1789, the king announced the convening of the Estates-General—representatives from all estates of all provinces. They were to help him find a solution that would satisfy everyone.
Unexpectedly for the government, this news greatly stirred France. The Estates-General had not been convened for 175 years, and everyone was anticipating major changes. The impoverished nobility wanted to increase their influence, peasants hoped to gain ownership of land, and the bourgeoisie sought equal rights with the nobility and access to public office.
The convocation of the Estates-General
Each region prepared its list of grievances for consideration at the meeting, and hundreds of pamphlets and public appeals to the deputies were published. People also talked about equality and civil liberties on the streets.
What is the third estate? Everything it has been so far, politically, is nothing. What does it demand? To become something. (From Abbé Sieyès’ pamphlet on the third estate).
The first session of the Estates-General took place on May 5 in the Hall of the Little Trianon in Versailles. At the opening, the king warned the deputies against dangerous innovations, and only financial matters were brought to the table. All other demands were ignored by the authorities. Although there were twice as many deputies from the third estate as from the first and second combined, each estate had only one vote. Representatives of the third estate demanded individual voting, but the government refused them. This outraged the liberal-minded deputies.
On June 17, by a majority vote of 490 to 90, they created the National Assembly, which would determine the fate of the country. On June 20, the deputies arrived for the next session, but the Hall of the Little Trianon was locked. The king ordered that no one be allowed in under the pretext of repairs. The deputies then occupied the royal tennis court and promised not to disperse until they had adopted a constitution.
The king brought in the guards and ordered everyone to disperse, but the president of the assembly, Jean-Bonne, responded: "The assembled nation does not take orders." Against the guards, liberal nobles drew their weapons. Fearing bloodshed, Louis XV was forced to recognize the National Assembly as legitimate. On July 9, 1789, it was renamed the Constituent Assembly. It was tasked with drafting a constitution and choosing a new form of government.
Constitutional monarchy
The king was not going to surrender. On July 11, he dismissed Finance Minister Necker, who supported the Third Estate. This outraged everyone—common citizens saw him as their defender, while the nobles understood he was the only one who could stop the economic crisis. Royal troops surrounded Paris, and rumors of an impending massacre spread through the city. The members of the National Assembly decided to strike first.
On July 14, 1789, a crowd of Parisians seized the Bastille, a fortress prison for political prisoners. This day is considered the beginning of the French Revolution. For the rebels, the Bastille symbolized hated absolutism. Moreover, the revolutionaries hoped to find weapons there. Later, the fortress was razed to the ground. It is notable that at the time of the storming, only seven prisoners were held there: four counterfeiters, two mentally ill individuals, and a murderer.
A wave of uprisings, under the motto "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," spread through all the major cities. The royal government was overthrown everywhere, and people pledged allegiance to the National Assembly. Assessing the scale of the unrest, Louis called back the troops and appointed Necker as minister. From this moment, the National Assembly became the highest authority in the country.
In early August, serfdom was finally abolished, the feudal duties of peasants were canceled, and the nobles and clergy lost their privileges. The estates were abolished, officials and priests were no longer appointed but elected, and all church property was nationalized. On August 26, 1789, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted. Freedom of person, speech, and beliefs was declared natural and belonging to everyone from birth. From now on, all people were equal before the law.
At first, the king refused to accept the declaration and other decrees, but he was forced to do so under the pressure of society. After the adoption of the Constitution on September 3, 1791, the king was left with only executive power, which was heavily limited. His functions were now limited to signing the orders of the Legislative Assembly, which was created to replace the National Assembly. The adoption of the Constitution put an end to absolutism in France. However, the Great French Bourgeois Revolution did not end there.
The Varennes Crisis and the Fall of the Monarchy
At the beginning of the Revolution, the most powerful political force was the Jacobin Club. Its members held meetings in a former monastery of Saint Jacob, which is where the name came from. The Jacobins represented the interests of the Third Estate and strongly supported the Revolution. However, by early 1792, disagreements began within the club, leading to a split.
Two factions emerged. The Girondins, who were relatively moderate liberals, wanted to spread the Revolution beyond France and grant human rights to all people. They represented the interests of the intelligentsia. Their name came from the Gironde department, where the first members of the party were elected. Notable figures: Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud, Jacques-Pierre Brissot.
The Montagnards, radical liberals, represented the interests of small bourgeois and ordinary citizens. They demanded full democratization of society, including the legal right to defend their interests with arms. Their name translates to "people from above." At meetings, they occupied the upper left rows. Notable figures: Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Jacques Danton, Jean-Paul Marat. After the split, the words "Jacobin" and "Montagnard" became synonyms.
The third political force was the Feuillant Club, composed of liberal monarchists who represented the interests of the nobility and the upper bourgeoisie. They believed that the goals of the Revolution had been achieved and that it was time to end it. Their name comes from the place of their meetings — the former monastery of the Feuillant order. Notable figures: Mirabeau, Bailli, Lafayette, Barnave, Duport, the Lameth brothers.
Each party had its own program and arguments in its favor, but on June 20, 1791, all plans were disrupted. The king tried to escape the country at night. Louis XVI and his family dressed as commoners and secretly left Paris, but within a day, they were caught in the town of Varennes, near the German border. On June 25, the royal family was brought back to Paris. For the country, it was a shock: the king had betrayed and abandoned everyone. Revolutionary sentiments flared up with new strength. The Montagnards demanded to reorganize the country into a Republic.
On July 17, Danton held a rally at the Champ de Mars, where he collected signatures for the king's abdication. The mayor of Paris, Bailli, and the commander of the National Guard, Lafayette, arrived with soldiers. They declared that the king hadn't escaped, but had been attempted to be kidnapped. However, the people refused to disperse, and an order was given to shoot. The guards killed 50 people, and several hundred were injured. This was the first bloody conflict among the revolutionaries.
The situation in France concerned neighboring powers. Austria and Prussia announced their intention to restore Louis to the throne and threatened with invasion. The Girondins took advantage of this. On April 20, they convinced the Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria. Louis XVI signed the declaration of war. He hoped that, if successful, his authority would be restored. However, the war was going badly for the French. There was a shortage of officers in the army, most of the nobility had emigrated or switched sides to the enemy. There were also problems with food and discipline.
However, the French blamed the royal family for the military failures. The king's wife, Marie Antoinette, was the sister of the Austrian emperor and did everything she could to hasten the invasion. On August 1, the Austrian commander, Duke of Brunswick, published a manifesto in which he threatened to level Paris if Louis and his family were in danger. This news drove the Parisians into a frenzy.
On August 10, 1792, the National Guard stormed the royal palace and imprisoned Louis and his family. From that day, France became a republic. The Legislative Assembly resigned and announced the convening of the National Convention, which the Girondins led. In December 1792, Louis was sentenced to death. In 1793, the king was beheaded on the guillotine. In the autumn of the same year, the queen was also executed.
The Jacobin Terror
One of the National Convention's first decrees was the reset of the calendar. 1789 was declared the first year of Freedom, weeks were replaced with decades, and new names for days and months were introduced.
However, ignoring the past did not solve the problems of the present. The Holy Roman Empire, England, and Spain joined the war, and France found itself surrounded by enemies and suffering defeat after defeat. There was still no money in the treasury. The Jacobins blamed the ruling party for the country's troubles.
On April 6, 1793, Danton created the Committee of Public Safety, which promised to punish traitors, conspirators, and counterrevolutionaries. The revolutionary newspaper Friend of the People, published by the Jacobin Marat, called for the execution of the Girondins. On May 31, a crowd gathered outside the Convention, demanding the surrender of the Girondin leader Vergniaud and his supporters. On July 2, they were placed under house arrest, and on October 23, the entire party leadership was executed by guillotine. The Era of Terror began.
After coming to power, the Jacobins published a new republican Constitution, which guaranteed the right to work, education, medical care, and social benefits. However, it did not come into effect as its adoption was postponed until the end of the war. In the meantime, the Convention, now led by the Jacobins under Robespierre, established a temporary revolutionary order.
To strengthen the army, a general mobilization was declared, all factories and enterprises were placed under state control, and a price ceiling for bread was established. To support this, grain was forcibly taken from the peasants and distributed among the bakeries. Only the government could trade goods, and speculation was punishable by death.
Uprisings erupted across the country, and the government responded with a wave of arrests and executions. Robespierre did everything he could to eliminate his competitors. In the following years, Danton, Bois, and other charismatic leaders were executed. Earlier, at the hands of the noblewoman Charlotte Corday, Marat was killed — he was stabbed in his bath.
On September 17, 1793, the Law of Suspects was passed. Now, people could be arrested not only for actual actions but also simply on suspicion of counter-revolutionary activity. The right to witness testimony and legal counsel was abolished, and people were executed without trial or investigation.
Meanwhile, on the front, the long-awaited turning point came: in the winter of 1794, fresh troops were added to the army, and by spring, the French managed to clear the country’s territory of invaders. The situation stabilized, and Robespierre declared that the final wave of terror was needed to cleanse the Convention of traitors. Almost every deputy had reasons to fear for their life, and a conspiracy emerged.
On July 27, 1794, the deputies brought charges against Robespierre, and the next day, he was executed by guillotine along with 24 supporters. On July 29, following the riots in Paris, 71 more people were executed. This was the most massive execution of the French Revolution. According to official records, over 17,000 people were sentenced and executed in 1793 and 1794. The number of people who died in uprisings and prisons remains unknown.
After the dissolution of the Jacobin Club, the terror began to subside. The Girondins emerged from hiding and returned to the Convention. The newly formed government declared a general amnesty.
In August 1795, the deputies adopted a new Constitution. Legislative power was transferred to the legislative body, with the upper house called the Council of Elders and the lower house called the Council of 500. Executive power was held by the Directory, consisting of five members chosen by the Council of Elders upon the proposal of the Council of 500.
The government stopped intervening in the economy and abolished the price ceiling. This led to inflation. Food prices rose, the common people rapidly became impoverished, while speculators reaped the profits. Bandits roamed the provinces. In the remote regions of the country, the Jacobins attempted to incite uprisings against the new government, but these did not escalate into a full-blown rebellion. The people were tired of the revolution, and the word "revolutionary" itself was banned.
Meanwhile, things were going better on the front. The army, commanded by the talented young general Napoleon Bonaparte, invaded the Italian possessions of the Habsburgs and forced the Austrian emperor to sign a peace treaty. The war was over, and Napoleon became a national hero.
Napoleonic coup
In 1797–1798, Napoleon won several more brilliant victories in Syria and Egypt. Other powers watched with concern as France grew stronger and began amassing forces for a new war. Now, France faced opposition from Great Britain, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Russia, and Turkey. The country was once again under the threat of invasion, but the French relied on Napoleon's military genius.
In the autumn of 1799, several members of the Directory decided to conspire against their opponents and turned to Napoleon for military support. The young general realized that his time had come. On November 10, he appeared with soldiers at the Council of 500 and forced it to transfer power to three consuls, one of whom Napoleon appointed himself. With this event, the French Revolution came to an end.
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