Sparta: State of Great Warriors
- Davit Grigoryan
- Jan 29
- 9 min read
The citizens of Sparta, who referred to themselves as Lacedaemonians, considered themselves the greatest warriors and had good reason for this belief. The entire way of life in Sparta, shaped by the laws of Lycurgus, was dedicated to preparing invincible warriors from Spartan youth. These warriors were strong, courageous, disciplined, and willing to make any sacrifice. In this article, we will delve into the origins and social structure of Sparta, its training methods, and the reasons behind Sparta’s eventual collapse.
What Was the Origin of Ancient Sparta?
Sparta’s origins can be traced back to the early Bronze Age when numerous communities emerged across the fertile Evrotas Valley in Laconia. This region held some prominence, with a Mycenaean palace dominating its heights, and the mythological King Menelaus playing a significant role in Homer’s Trojan War. Despite this brief period of renown, the communities of Laconia declined by the end of the Bronze Age and entered a period of slow and gradual development.
Sparta’s rise to power began during the Archaic period. Initially, this occurred on a local scale as several villages merged through a gradual process of synoecism, establishing a dual monarchy in the process. These unified communities, which would come to be known as Sparta, soon leveraged their collective strength to dominate the surrounding region. Their initial conflicts targeted neighboring communities in the Laconian Valley, but they soon extended their reach across the formidable Taygetos mountain range into Messenia.
During the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, Sparta closely resembled other Greek communities of its time. Militarily, its early armies were unremarkable. They were composed of two primary groups: the social elite, who served as heavily armored spearmen, and their followers, who fought as lightly armored foot soldiers. However, neither group was particularly uniform, as individuals had to purchase their equipment. This meant that only the wealthiest Spartans could afford to act as “mounted hoplites,” riding horses into battle before dismounting to fight on foot in the finest armor. In other city-states like Athens and Eretria, such wealthy individuals formed a distinct social class known as the “hippeis” or “horsemen.”
In battle, the Archaic Spartan army was organized in loosely formed masses, which could not often maneuver or act in unison. Only on rare occasions would a larger group of spearmen, the front-line fighters, come together to mount a coordinated attack or defense.
By the early 7th century, this diverse group of warriors had finally managed to dominate their immediate neighbors in the southern Peloponnese, incorporating them into a new social order as subjects required to give half of their harvest as tribute to the Spartans. This victory secured Sparta control over approximately 8,500 square kilometers of territory, making it the largest polis in Greece.
What was the social structure of ancient Sparta?
In Sparta, the population was divided into three categories: the Spartiates, the Perioeci, and the Helots. The highest category, the Spartiates, were full citizens with freedom. They focused on military training and participated in campaigns of conquest. The Perioeci, the intermediate category, were free but not full citizens, while the Helots were the lowest category, essentially serfs bound to the land.
The Spartiates were not interested in agriculture, trade, crafts, or the arts. Instead, they dedicated themselves entirely to warfare. Lands and slaves captured in wars were distributed equally among the Spartans. Each Spartan family was assigned a plot of land that could not be transferred or sold.
The Helots worked the land allocated to the Spartans. They were enslaved individuals, primarily drawn from the populations of Laconia and Messenia, conquered by the Spartans. The Helots were responsible for producing crops such as olives, grains, and vegetables, but they had to give half of their harvest to their Spartan masters.
Despite supporting Spartan society through their labor, the Helots were treated with extreme cruelty. They were forbidden from moving freely around the country and could be killed without consequence. The Helots often revolted against their masters, prompting the Spartans to take harsh measures. To suppress potential uprisings, the Spartans practiced a secretive and brutal tactic: they would send Spartan youths into Helot villages to break into their homes and murder those they deemed most dangerous. This strategy was meant to instill fear and prevent future rebellions.
Trade and craft in Sparta were carried out by the Perioeci—free people but, unlike the Spartans, did not have the right to participate in government. The Perioeci were required to follow Spartan foreign policy and were also expected to provide men for the Spartan army. Like the Spartans, the Perioeci owned Helots, reinforcing the primary division in Spartan society: between Spartan citizens and Perioeci on one side, and the Helots on the other.
The government of Sparta was simple and remained unchanged for many centuries. Sparta was ruled by two king-commanders, with power passed down through inheritance. In times of war, one king would lead the campaign, while the other stayed behind to govern the polis.
The main governing body in Sparta was the Council of Elders, known as the Gerousia. This council consisted of 28 members, all of whom had to be over the age of 60. High-level state decisions were discussed and made by this council. Unlike in Athens, where public debate was encouraged, there was no opportunity for individuals to express opinions at these meetings. Issues were not debated; instead, decisions were made or rejected through a vote cast by shouting.
The highest authority in Sparta was held by a council of five Ephors. They wielded broad judicial, religious, legislative, and military powers, allowing them to shape both domestic and foreign affairs. The Ephors were not required to kneel before the Kings of Sparta and were held in high regard by the citizens due to the significance of their powers and the sacred role they played throughout their duties.
How did Spartans train?
As Lycurgus observed the lazy, mediocre citizens of Sparta, he concluded that his people needed a new approach to education. Central to his vision was the belief that healthy, disciplined, and physically capable individuals were essential for a successful and functioning society. His system was designed to encompass every young Spartan citizen, both male and female. Although girls were excluded from the more rigorous and extreme training of the Agoge, they were still expected to engage in exercises similar to those of the boys, such as fighting and running. This was based on the belief that both parents needed to be in peak physical condition to produce the best possible offspring.
For boys, the system was divided into three age categories: children, adolescents, and young adults. The first category resembled a modern-day boarding school. Young Spartans would leave their families to learn letters, music, poetry, singing, and sports. In the Spartan system, one man was chosen to oversee the boys as their Paidonomos or supervisor. The supervisor's role was to ensure that the young Spartans became loyal, resourceful, disciplined, and accustomed to rigorous physical activity. He had the authority to punish the boys as he saw fit and was always accompanied by a group of older boys armed with whips to enforce his discipline. This intense instilling of discipline and respect was the first step in their training.
When Spartan boys reached their teenage years, they entered the second stage of the Agoge. At this point, they were given only one cloak to keep warm and were required to walk barefoot to toughen their feet. During this stage, they were taught to fight with weapons and march in unison, always in complete silence, following the rhythm of music. These silent marches were not only a part of their training but also served as a psychological tactic in battle. Most armies lacked the discipline to maintain such silence, and it would be unsettling for opponents to face a seemingly emotionless and confident army.
Spartan training was not focused on building excessive muscle mass. Instead, it aimed to improve speed, agility, and muscle memory. The average Spartan body was not overly muscular but rather nimble and lean, carrying just enough weight and muscle for optimal physical performance. Spartan youths were never fully satisfied and were always somewhat hungry. This was an intentional part of their training, designed to make them resourceful and to build their resistance to hunger and pain.
To further instill discipline, they were ordered to hide their hands under their cloak, walk silently, and keep their eyes fixed on the ground when in public. Xenophon even notes that it would be more likely to see a stone speak or a bronze statue turn its eyes than to see a Spartan youth do so. They reserved their words only for when spoken to.
When the boys grew into young men, Lycurgus devoted the most time and effort to their training, as he believed they were the city’s greatest asset. He particularly focused on cultivating their sense of competitiveness and teamwork, as he believed this was the best way to push the men to the limits of their abilities.
Out of all the young men, three strong leaders were assigned to handpick the best 100 among them for their teams. Each leader had to provide a reason for both their selections and rejections. Once the groups were formed, the leaders and their chosen men were pitted in various activities and battles against those they had rejected. This created intense competition, as each selected man sought to prove he deserved his place, while each rejected man aimed to prove he had been underestimated.
Once the men outgrew their young adulthood, they were finally relieved of intense physical training. However, hunting remained the most popular leisure activity, as it mimicked many of the hardships of military life and kept them physically fit and mentally alert. Marriage also served as a motivator, as Spartans were only allowed to marry and have children once they were in peak physical condition.
The final social norm, and by far the most brutal, was designed to discourage cowardice. Anyone who fled from the battle was condemned to live in perpetual disgrace in every aspect of life. In any gathering, they were required to give up their seat to younger men. In the streets, they had to yield to everyone, and even in their own families, they were forbidden from marrying and having children. They were forced to pay a lifelong penalty for their cowardice and could be beaten if they ever tried to act as though they were innocent in public.
Why did Sparta Collapse?
In the 6th century BC, the Spartans won significant victories and expanded their influence, eventually uniting nearly all of Greece under the Peloponnesian League, which Sparta completely dominated. A century later, Athens attempted to challenge Sparta but failed. Even the defeat in the war against Persia did not weaken Sparta's power. Despite ceding colonies in Asia Minor to the Persians, the kings of Sparta retained their primacy among the Greek city-states. The situation changed dramatically only in the 4th century BC.
The long dominance of the Spartans, whom the rest of the Greeks considered uncouth louts and brutish warriors, irritated other city-states, particularly the wealthy and influential ones. Thebes refused to recognize the terms of peace concluded with Persia and gained the support of Athens in this stance. In 376 BC, an alliance of coastal and island Greek states was formed, aimed at countering the hegemony of Sparta. This led to the Boeotian War, during which the brilliant Theban commander Epaminondas defeated a numerically superior Spartan army for the first time in history at the Battle of Leuctra.
This defeat marked the beginning of the end of Spartan dominance. Sparta was stripped of its lands in Messenia, losing the economic foundation necessary to maintain a powerful and well-armed army. While Sparta remained strong, by the 4th century BC, it could no longer resist the invasion of Greece by King Philip of Macedon. A century later, the Spartans, for the first time, began to build walls around their cities, signaling a weakening of their army. Until then, they had always confidently faced their enemies in the field. The Spartans had proudly claimed that their valor replaced the need for city walls. The rocky terrain surrounding Sparta, which lacked specially constructed fortifications, had allowed them to defend against invasions by blocking the few accessible passages with strong troops.
By the 3rd century BC, Sparta was in severe crisis. Due to heavy losses in war and a significant reduction in land holdings, only 700 families of full citizens remained across the state. The middle class was collapsing, and many fathers could no longer afford full hoplite armor, which, according to traditional laws, excluded such families from citizenship and the right to vote. In 242 BC, the ruler of Sparta, Agis IV, sought to eliminate all debt records and implement a land reform to boost the economy. However, he failed. It wasn’t until 229 BC that Cleomenes III succeeded in these reforms.
As a result of these reforms, Sparta regained its strength and once again attempted to impose its will on the other Greek city-states. However, times have changed. Opponents of Sparta appealed to the king of Macedonia, Antigonus Doson, and in 222 BC, the Spartans were defeated at the Battle of Sellasia. In the 2nd century BC, the Romans arrived in Greece, skillfully exploiting the old feuds between local city-states. Sparta, once invincible when opposing individual city-states, was unable to resist the power of the Roman Empire and eventually became part of one of its provinces.
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