Lesser-known Crusades

People know that the Crusades are numbered: the First, Second, Third, etc. However, only some realize that besides these numbered ones, others didn't receive a number.

Illustration of the "four leaders of the first crusade" for "The history of France: from the earliest times until 1789, told to my grandchildren" by François Guizot.

The People's Crusade

The events of the Crusades began unfolding even before the start of the first numbered Crusade. The crusaders were supposed to set out on August 15, 1096. However, as always, some couldn't wait. The poor, led by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, set out for Palestine as early as April. According to modern estimates, the number of commoner troops reached up to 300,000 people.

Peter the Hermit Preaching the First Crusade - From the Painting by James Archer - from Cassell's History of England, Vol. I - anonymous author and artists

The unprepared, poorly educated crowd didn't even have supplies or baggage. Nearly every large city they encountered was mistaken for Jerusalem. By autumn, after ravaging the lands they passed through, the army of the poor reached the walls of Constantinople. By that time, their numbers had dwindled to 180,000. Exhausted from the journey, the ragtag group, during their weeks in Byzantium, burned and looted dozens of houses, palaces, merchant shops, and even churches. Becoming a real headache for the Greeks, the commoners forced Emperor Alexios Komnenos to hastily ferry them across the Bosporus.

Once on Seljuk territory, lacking proper leadership, the peasant-crusader forces began to scatter and were eventually slaughtered in a decisive battle at Civetot. During this battle, over 60,000 Christians were killed, and only a small fraction of them managed to return to Constantinople.

The German Crusade

At the same time, the crusaders gathered in France and Germany, waiting to be sent out, loitered idly. The crowd, mainly consisting of peasants, urban rabble, and impoverished knights, was almost uncontrollable by the church. At some point, part of these fighters for the Christian faith decided not to wait until Jerusalem and directed their religious fury at the Jewish communities that had long inhabited European cities. They blamed them for the crucifixion of Jesus, forced them to convert to Christianity, and looted, and killed them.

There are more than 300,000 hand-painted tin soldiers in the Plassenburg Zinnfiguren Museum in the Plassenburg Castle near Kulmbach, Germany.

A significant part of the pogroms, also known as the German Crusade, occurred in the Rhineland—a historical region along the middle course of the Rhine River, located in present-day Germany. This also points to a more practical reason for the tragedy that occurred. The Jewish communities in this region were notably wealthy. This was due to their isolation and the authorities' allowance for them to engage in usury, while such activity was prohibited for Catholics.

Attacks on Jews became a common way to become rich or settle debts, as many Crusaders had taken loans from members of this community to fund their journey to the Holy Land. During May-June 1096 alone, between 5,000 and 12,000 Jews were killed in the pogroms, with a significant number of them choosing to take their own lives rather than renounce their faith.

Crusade of the Faint-Hearted

The success of The First Crusade sparked a surge of religious fanaticism in Europe. Participants who returned before Jerusalem fell were met with contempt and accusations of cowardice. Additionally, reports of the immense wealth gained by fortunate crusaders unsettled many poor knights who had previously been unwilling to venture East. Therefore, when news reached the West that one of the leaders of the campaign, Bohemond of Taranto, had been captured by the Emir of Cappadocia, a queue of volunteers quickly formed to join the rescue mission.

Imaginary portrait of Bohemond I by Merry-Joseph Blondel (1781–1853)

The first crusader army, departing from Lombardy, was led by Archbishop Anselm IV of Milan. Upon reaching Asia Minor, it joined forces with the French troops of Stephen of Blois and Raymond of Toulouse. Initially, things went well for the Christians. Meeting no serious resistance, on June 23, 1101, they managed to capture Ankara. However, this success turned out to be both the first and the last for the Franco-Lombard army. In mid-July, near Merzifon, the Crusaders were encircled and were almost annihilated by the Rum Seljuks.

At the head of The Second Crusader army was Count William II of Nevers, and his achievements were even more modest. Arriving in Anatolia after the Lombards, he and his troops unsuccessfully attempted to capture the city of Iconium and then fell into an ambush set by the Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan. After suffering a crushing defeat, the count and a few knights managed to escape.

Then the Third Crusader army came to Bohemund's aid. It set out from France and the Holy Roman Empire under the leadership of notable aristocrats such as William IX of Aquitaine, Hugh of Vermandois, and Welf of Bavaria. Ignoring the mistakes of their predecessors, these leaders also underestimated the enemy's strength. Encountering the sultan's army at Heraclea, the Europeans were easily defeated. Thus ended the Crusade in disgrace. Bohemond had to extricate himself from the situation on his own, and the young Catholic principalities of the Middle East were forced to give up hopes of receiving the necessary assistance from Europe.

Norwegian Crusade

As we already know, the Crusades became quite a fashionable endeavor. The young Norwegian King Sigurd I did not wish to remain on the sidelines of these significant events. He decided to organize his campaign. The 17-year-old ruler attached great importance to the future venture, carried out thorough preparations, reformed the government, and abolished unjust laws and burdensome taxes, thereby gaining popular support. The Norwegian Crusade followed the traditions of the famous Viking raids. Gathering 5,000 warriors in the autumn of 1107, Sigurd, accompanied by 60 ships, set out on his journey. Passing through England, Portugal, Spain, and Sicily, the Norwegians managed to reach Jerusalem.

Sigurd the Crusader entering Constantinople

During their journey, they repeatedly looted coastal settlements, both Muslim and Christian; fought pirates, and even went on a rampage through their stronghold in the Balearic Islands. In Palestine, King Baldwin I of Jerusalem bestowed sacred relics upon the Norwegians. In particular, they received a piece of the True Cross with the condition that they would continue spreading Christianity. After participating in the siege of Sidon, the Vikings went to Constantinople, where they exchanged their ships for horses and, passing through Hungary, the Holy Roman Empire, and Denmark, returned home with rich spoils, successfully concluding their expedition.

The Crusade in Al-Andalus

In the early 8th century, the Moors succeeded in conquering most of the Iberian Peninsula. They named their new lands "Al-Andalus", but in modern times, they are more commonly referred to as "Muslim Spain". From the moment of the invasion until the end of the 15th century, a prolonged struggle ensued between Christians to reclaim lost territories. This historical phenomenon was known as the Reconquista, which, in turn, became part of the broader crusading movement.

Moorish army (right) of Almanzor during the Reconquista Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz, from Cantigas de Alfonso X el Sabio

In the early 1220s, the Mozarabs (Christians living in Muslim territory) complained to King Alfonso I of Aragon about the oppression by the fanatical governor of Granada. The Christian ruler, in need of new settlers, responded eagerly to the appeal. Preparations for a crusade began, with the additional goal of conquering Granada—a major center of weaving and agriculture. Having ensured a safe passage into Muslim lands, on September 2, 1125, the Christian army launched its attack. According to medieval chronicles, its strength was between 4,000 and 5,000 knights and about 15,000-foot soldiers.

It cannot be said that the Crusaders advanced with fire and sword—when it became clear that the Muslim garrison of Valencia had no desire to engage in battle, the King of Aragon also ignored them. However, upon reaching the southern regions, Alfonso did indeed plunder several settlements and, having crossed the mountain passes, continued onward. The crusaders also faced setbacks—when the city of Baza, which seemed almost defenseless, put up strong resistance, Alfonso simply withdrew from its walls and quickly captured the fortress of Guadix, where he stayed for a month, celebrating Christmas and replenishing supplies. Later, as he approached Granada, the king began waiting for the outcome of the Mozarabic uprising within the city. However, as time passed, no favorable opportunity for an assault emerged. The Crusaders lost the element of surprise. Therefore, Alfonso, failing to launch an attack, retreated and began ravaging the surrounding areas.

On March 10, 1126, the Muslims caught up with the Christian army at Arnisola, where a battle took place, resulting in a decisive victory for the latter. Elated by their triumph, the Crusaders approached Granada again, but once more, they did not risk an assault. Reinforcements from Africa allowed the Muslims to first push back Alfonso's army and then force it to return home. Thus, in June 1126, the crusade in Al-Andalus came to an end, and overall, the Christians were satisfied with the outcome: in the only major battle, they achieved victory, and about 40,000 Mozarabs were relocated from Granada for permanent settlement.

Albigensian Crusade

At the end of the 12th and the first half of the 13th century, a heresy of the Cathar movement spread widely in southern France. The heretics called themselves Albigensians, after the town of Albi, where their concentration was highest. They were adherents of absolute dualism, believing in the existence of two equally powerful primordial gods—one of light and one of darkness.

Pope Innocentius III excommunicating the Albigensians (left), Massacre against the Albigensians by the crusaders (right) (British Library, Royal 16 G VI f. 374v)

For understandable reasons, the Roman Catholic Church could not tolerate such competition for people's souls for long. Initially, Pope Innocent III tried to influence the Albigensians through diplomatic methods: he sent numerous preachers (including Saint Dominic), removed local bishops from their positions, excommunicated noblemen who sympathized with the heretics, and even called on the French King Philip II to intervene. However, the results of these actions were disappointing. The Albigensians' position in the region remained unshaken. Then, an opportunity arose to resort to more decisive actions.

In January 1208, a conflict arose between the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau and Raymond VI, the ruler of Toulouse. During their meeting, the monk threatened the count with excommunication if no decisive actions were taken to eradicate the Cathar heresy in his territories. Shortly afterward, Pierre was found dead. Angered by the murder, the pope responded with a decree promising to grant the lands of the Albigensians to anyone who participated in the campaign to eliminate the heresy. Naturally, many were eager to take part. Adventurers and defenders of the faith began to flock to the region, and the Albigensian Crusade was launched. Military actions of varying intensity lasted for about 20 years, during which more than a million people were killed in total.

These dramatic events are conventionally divided into three main periods. The first period includes the successful offensive operations of the Crusaders and the defeat of the heretics. Key moments of this confrontation include the capture of Béziers, the siege of Carcassonne, the Battle of Muret, and the subjugation of Toulouse. In this phase, the actions of the Crusaders were marked by particular brutality. For example, the population of Béziers was completely massacred, even though no more than 300 Cathars were living there.

In the second stage of the conflict, the Albigensians managed to reclaim many lost positions through uprisings. However, their streak of success ended when the new phase of the Crusade was led by the King of France, Louis VIII, in June 1226. Cities and castles surrendered to the monarch without a fight, with only Avignon managing to hold out under siege for more than three months. Even the unexpected death of the king did not change the situation.

The completion of the Albigensian Crusade fell to his wife, Queen Blanche, and her appointed commander, Humbert de Beaujeu. By 1229, the forces of the heretics were exhausted. As a result, Count Raymond VII of Toulouse was forced to sign a humiliating peace treaty at Meaux. According to the agreement, he acknowledged himself as a vassal of the new king, Louis IX, ceded half of his territories to the crown, agreed to the marriage of his only daughter, Joan, to the king’s brother Alphonse, paid large sums to several abbeys, and committed to persecuting the heretics. The fight against the remnants of the Albigensians was later transferred to the Holy Inquisition and continued for quite some time, but that is, as they say, another story.