How did Napoleon Bonaparte die?
- Davit Grigoryan
- Jun 27, 2024
- 6 min read
Updated: Jan 8
Napoleon Bonaparte—what do you know about this man? He was a brilliant commander and ruler who founded a new dynasty of French kings. His life was an extraordinary journey, rising from a simple military officer to becoming the emperor of one of Europe’s most powerful states. Bonaparte waged war against Russia and suffered defeat. This was followed by his first exile to the island of Elba, his triumphant return during the famous Hundred Days, and ultimately, his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. This defeat led to his second exile on the island of St. Helena. And with that, his story, as typically taught in school history courses, comes to an end.
But exile is not death. How did Napoleon live in Saint Helena? What kind of island is it, and how did the French emperor meet his end? You’ll find answers to all these questions in our article. Rather than covering the entirety of Napoleon's extraordinary life and career, we will focus exclusively on his later years.
Captivity was worse than death
In 1814, an agreement was reached between the Emperor of the French and representatives of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, granting Napoleon possession of the island of Elba, where he went into exile. Even before signing this treaty, Napoleon attempted to take poison, but the substance had expired and failed to have any effect.
While on Elba, the French emperor actively worked to develop the island's economy and exchanged secret messages with his supporters in France. The subsequent unstable political situation in Europe created an opportunity for Napoleon. He managed to escape from exile, but returning to France meant another war—something the country could no longer bear. This culminated in the defeat of the French forces at the Battle of Waterloo, near the Belgian village of Waterloo, on June 18, 1815. Following this defeat, Napoleon returned to Paris, where he abdicated the throne again and went into exile again.
You would never guess who this former French ruler turned to for refuge. Napoleon sought asylum from the British—a nation he had long despised and worked to undermine. Yet, the British government had other plans. Rather than offering him sanctuary, they decided to send him into exile. Upon learning of this, Napoleon reportedly exclaimed, “This is worse than the iron cage of Tamerlane! I would prefer to be handed over to the Bourbons!”
This reaction leads to a logical conclusion: for Bonaparte, captivity was worse than death. This sentiment likely explains why exile was chosen as his punishment. But why was the former Emperor of the French sent to Saint Helena, and what kind of island is it?
The Island of Saint Helena
Saint Helena is a British overseas territory consisting of three landmasses situated between Africa and South America. Before the construction of the Suez Canal, it served as a crucial transit point for ships traveling to the Indian Ocean. The island's remoteness from Europe was a significant factor in its selection as Napoleon’s place of exile.
In later years, the British would continue to use Saint Helena to isolate political opponents. For instance, during the Second Boer War, the island became a prison for captured Boers. Among those exiled was the prominent Boer general Piet Cronjé, who was sent there along with his wife and staff.
The island of Saint Helena has a warm, tropical, and mild climate. It was once home to unique animals and plants, many of which were lost due to human economic activity. Originally uninhabited, the island was discovered by the Portuguese. Over time, during the fierce competition between the British and the Dutch, Saint Helena became part of the British Empire.
Today, it remains a British Overseas Territory and is still considered one of the most remote places in the world. Until 2015, the island could only be reached by ship. Saint Helena now draws tourists, primarily to sites associated with Napoleon’s exile and legacy.
The French emperor arrived at his place of exile on October 17, 1815, accompanied by a retinue of 26 people. Napoleon settled in Longwood House, located near the island’s capital. Researchers have noted that this final residence of the former emperor was situated in an area with an unhealthy climate, which may have negatively impacted his health.
The residence was under constant guard, with all information about Napoleon’s movements reported to higher authorities. None of his relatives visited him during his exile in Saint Helena. In contrast, during his time in Elba, both his mother and one of his sisters came to see him. On Saint Helena, however, he was left almost entirely alone.
Initially, Napoleon's freedom on Saint Helena was relatively unrestricted—until a new governor arrived on the island. The former French emperor soon found himself in conflict with this man, leading to even stricter limitations on his freedom. Governor Hudson Lowe, deeply concerned about the possibility of his distinguished prisoner escaping, implemented more severe measures to ensure Napoleon remained under control.
What did Napoleon Bonaparte do during his exile? He walked around the island, dictated his memoirs to one of his companions, and received a few rare visitors. After his death, the memoirs were published under the title The Memorial of Saint Helena. This book went on to become one of the most widely read works of the 19th century.
No information suggests that Bonaparte’s relatives visited him during his exile. Josephine had died while Napoleon was still in Elba, his second wife, Marie Louise abandoned him, and his son was too young to visit. His mother, in her declining mental state, even claimed that her son had left his place of exile long before.
The true source of joy for the famous exile came from his friendship with a little girl, the daughter of one of the managers of the English East India Company. Eyewitnesses recalled that Napoleon would often act like a child, playing with the girl, and allowing himself to experience moments of humanity. Years later, as an adult, this girl published her memoirs, recounting her friendship with the former French emperor.
After five years of exile, a new plan for Bonaparte’s escape surfaced. An American smuggler named Johnson hoped to rescue him aboard his submarine, but these plans were thwarted by Napoleon's death on May 5, 1821.
Death of Napoleon
From the very beginning of his exile, Napoleon began to feel unwell. He led a sedentary lifestyle, was often in a bad mood, and frequently complained of pain in his right side. His doctor, O'Meara, diagnosed him with hepatitis, a condition likely worsened by the island's climate. Over time, his health deteriorated further due to prolonged depression, and the former French emperor certainly had reasons for his despair.
A conflict with the island's governor led to Napoleon being denied his daily walks, and the family of the little girl he had befriended left the island. Additionally, the governor removed him from the care of his trusted doctor, Mir, who had been a friend to Bonaparte. A new doctor, sent by Napoleon's relatives, was unable to help. By March, Bonaparte's condition had worsened to the point where he no longer doubted his imminent death, prompting him to make his will.
Initially, there were two versions regarding the death of the great French ruler. The first was proposed by his doctors, who claimed that the former emperor died of hepatitis. French investigator Alain Decaux, in his article, argued that the climate on Saint Helena—a remote, rocky island in the middle of the ocean—was a major contributing factor to the frequent cases of chronic hepatitis experienced by the inhabitants.
The second hypothesis was put forward by Napoleon himself, who believed he was suffering from stomach cancer, the same disease that had claimed the life of his father. This belief led the former Emperor of France to insist on an autopsy of his body after his death. Upon his passing, the procedure was carried out, and the report revealed that an ulcer had penetrated the stomach, creating a hole the size of a little finger. The inner layer of the stomach wall was almost entirely covered by fibrous or necrotic tissue, from which cancer could have developed. The presence of cancer in Bonaparte’s body is now widely accepted by researchers.
One of the most controversial theories was proposed by Swedish dentist Sten Forshufvud in the 1960s. He suggested that Napoleon had been poisoned with arsenic. Forshufvud conducted a series of analyses on the emperor’s hair, which revealed the presence of toxic substances. However, apart from the emperor’s hair, no other evidence was provided to support this claim. French historians viewed this theory with skepticism, as arsenic was commonly used in the 19th century either as a medicine or as an ingredient in various treatments.
Another unusual theory was proposed by an American endocrinologist, who suggested that Napoleon’s death was caused by a transformation into a woman due to a hormonal imbalance brought on by Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.
A more recent theory was put forward by a group of English doctors, who believed that Napoleon’s death was not due to illness but rather improper medical treatment. They argued that the drugs prescribed to him, which caused potassium depletion in his body, led to heart problems.
However, a gastroenterological study conducted in 2007 definitively established that the cause of Bonaparte’s death was stomach cancer.
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